Problem

There is a myriad of information about our universe, albeit they don’t always seem accessible to the main populace. Our mission is to help people learn more about the wonders of the universe, make it easier for them to access these information whilst making it enjoyable to learn more about it.

Solution

We are developing a video game that’s fun and informative. The player will start by creating their own solar system. They will choose a star type amongst, Main Sequence Stars, Subgiants, Bright giants, Red giants, Yellow Giants, Blue (and sometimes white) Giants, Yellow, Red, Orange, Brown Dwarves, Red Supergiants, Hypergiants, White Dwarves, Black Dwarves, Neutron Stars, Quark Stars, Variable Stars, Luminous Blue Variable, Wolf Rayet Stars, Protostars. Once the player chooses their star type, they will watch their star form from within a nebula and then a screen explaining star formation and special characteristics of their star will pop up. Then the player will have to create the solar system by placing planets, they will get to choose where planets are placed and tinker with their chemical compositions. They will also choose amongst various planet types such as Giant planet, Mesoplanet, Mini-Neptune, Super-Earth, Circumbinary planet, Dwarf Planet, Goldilocks planet, Major planet Planetary, Carbon planet, Coreless planet, Desert planet , Gas dwarf, Gas giant, Helium planet, Ice giant, Ice planet, Iron planet, Lava planet, Ocean planet, Puffy planet, Terrestrial planet, Earth analog. After that, a screen explaining more about the planet will pop up and then, they will choose which planet to try and start life. If all the conditions are suitable then life will start and so will the game.

The game is a clicker based game. The player will click on their planet and as they click they earn points which they can use to buy “Technological Advancement Indicators”. As the player gets more TAI, the more options they will have to get more points via new technologies. Such as a Dyson Swarm etc. The player will face several challenges during their games. When life starts, the game will randomly decide if great filters from the Fermi Paradox are behind them or ahead of them. If the great filters are behind them, then the player will face challenges purely due to their choices. For example, if the player decides to continue to burn coal after having discovered several other resources. Then they will face global warming. If the player decides to declare nuclear war, they will face the consequences of that. However if they manage to reach “100 000 000” TAIs then they will have successfully completed the game. However if the great filters are ahead of them, then they will face unavoidable problems. Which will cause several mass extinctions. However if they still manage to reach “100 000 000” TAIs then the civilization they created will completely perish. During the course of the game, players will discover new astronomical phenomena such as, Rotating Black Holes, Black Holes, Quasars, Supernovae, Nebulae [Diffuse Nebulae (Emission Nebulae, Reflection Nebulae), Dark Nebulae, Supernova Remnant Nebulae, Planetary Nebulae],Herbig Haro Objects and a few main principles regarding physics. When these astronomical phenomena are discovered, the player will be presented with information about them which they can later on use to answer test questions in order to double the number of points they have.

Project Outline

• Clicker Tycoon
  • Choose type of star, and choose formation of star. Start forming star (Animation sequence, keep drawing circles with mouse)
    • Screen pops up telling you about your star
      • how stars are formed
      • how stars function
  • Choose your planet type
    • Screen pops up explain accretion
    • For the planet just like the star
• Create several planets and create your solar system. Adjust the distance each planet has between the object they are orbiting
• Choose a planet to start life
  • Animation about life forming
    • Microorganisms
    • First photosynthesis
    • Life in the ocean
    • Evolution
  • Create your race
• Start clicking on the planet to gain points
  • Use the points you get to buy new technologies that help you get more points
  • Convert points into “technological advancement indicators”
  • As you get more advanced you can do more
  • Learn more about the universe
    • Answer questions regarding the stuff you have learned to earn more points
    • Examples
      • Create a Dyson Swarm
      • Colonize a moon
      • Explore Space
      • Terraform Planets
      • Use a black hole to gain more energy
      • Learn about the fermi paradox
• Go through mass extinctions similar to the ones we observed on our planet
• Experience Global Warming
• Nuclear War
• Randomly determine in great filters behind you are ahead of you
  • Go through great filters
  • Reach the end of the game as you reach the final great filter and you civilization perishes
  • Or
    • Reach prosperity at “X” number of indicators

Physical and Chemical Relationships in the Game

1. General Relativity and Black Holes

Spacetime is considered as a result of 4th dimensional mechanism which adds the time as another dimension to well-known 3 dimensions in space. And general relativity predicts that a mass, if high enough, can deform spacetime to form a black hole which was pointed out by Oppenheimer and Synder in 1939.

1. Big Bang

The Big Bang theory is a cosmological theory explaining the observable universe’s beginning and its evolution through time which can also be seen in dictionaries, as the word whose meaning is “beginning”. In simple terms, the theory states that the universe started with a small singularity, and expand over 13.8 billion years, forming the cosmos today. Even though astronomers cannot experimentally observe the Big Bang due to the technology not allowing them to do so, the theory is accepted by the majority of astronomers because their mathematical calculations about the extension of the universe pointed out that the entire universe started with a small singularity.

2.Supernova

Supernova is the explosion of a star and can occur because of 2 different reasons:

The first one of which is the supernova caused by a star running out of nuclear fuel and its mass flow into its core causing a body with very high density which also causes the protons and electrons(due to the high density) to combine to form neutrons. Eventually, the body appears to be in such a mass that even its own gravitational force cannot resist which results in an explosion of a supernova.

Second way for supernovas to occur is when 2 stars orbit the same spot. One of the stars, a carbon-oxygen white dwarf, steals matter from its companion and eventually explode because of having too much matter causing a supernova.

3.Chemical Composition and Formation of Planets

First of all, the definition of a planet should be discussed. Here is the current acknowledgements for a body or matter by International Astronomical Union in 2006 if it is a planet. This states that a planet must do three things:

1. It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).
2. It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape.
3. It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit around the Sun.

Existence of life and consciousness in states other than the life on Earth cannot be observed nor can it be even theoretically mentioned with proofs. However, the existence of life similar to the life on Earth on other planets requires many conditions to continue and start. One of them depends on the planet’s chemical composition which consists of a planet's atmosphere and lithosphere.

The atmosphere must contain nitrogen which is one of the constituents of DNA and correspondingly life in order to sustain and start life.Also, atmosphere’s concentration is crucial for life to begin because the concentration of atmosphere affects the average temperature on the planet which can cause life’s end or life’s beginning to not exist in the first place when very high or very low. High or low temperatures not only affect biological damages on complex creatures but also affect water’s existence which is crucial for life considering evolution and recent observations.

Secondly, the lithosphere should provide an environment for water to flow, for heat to be absorbed and for minerals and required elements to exist.

Overall, a planet must satisfy loads of conditions to be able to start life on itself which is also the main idea of the game, Terra X.

4.Black Holes, Specifically

General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity, predicts the existence of black holes. During the life-time of some stars(high mass stars), there is a period when they undergo collapse. As it collapses its density increases and correspondingly its surface gravity increases. The radiation occurring as the star collapses, will not only be redshifted by this gravitational field, but as the surrounding spacetime becomes more and more warped as the gravitational field increases, the path of the radiation will become more and more curved and if the gravity increases sufficientşy there will come a point when the path of the radiation is so curved that none of the radiation will leave the surface of the star. This point is when a star becomes a black hole which sort of absorbs everything in an area (just like gravitational field) including light.

5. The Fermi Paradox

A Type I Civilization has the ability to use the energy on their planet. We’re not quite a Type I Civilization, but we’re a type 0.7 civilization according to Carl Sagan.

A Type II Civilization can harness all of the energy of their host star. It’s theorized that this would be possible by technologies like a Dyson Sphere.

A Type III Civilization blows the other two away, accessing power comparable to that of the entire Milky Way galaxy.

The main inquiry of the FERMI paradox is, “Where is everybody?” We have no definitive answer to this question, however we have some ideas. The first one is great filters. The group that supports the great filters explanation, states that right now there should be thousands(or even millions) of civilizations other than us, and the fact that none of them decided to contact us without exceptions is not probable. “The Great Filter theory says that at some point from pre-life to Type III intelligence, there’s a wall that all or nearly all attempts at life hit. There’s some stage in that long evolutionary process that is extremely unlikely or impossible for life to get beyond. That stage is “The Great Filter.” This brings on other questions regarding where the great filters are. Are they behind us, or are we doomed. If the great filters are behind us, then we are very rare, if we are going through them now, then we are one of the first civilizations going through them and other civilizations are at a similar standpoint technologically in comparison to us. Which would mean that life has started on other planets around the time it started on ours. Or we are doomed and the great filters are in our future. There is something that prevents life from progressing further and we don’t know what it is.

There is another group that don’t think great filters exist. They suggest that there are logical reasons for civilizations not to contact us.

“Possibility 1) Super-intelligent life could very well have already visited Earth, but before we were here.

Possibility 2) The galaxy has been colonized, but we just live in some desolate rural area of the galaxy.

Possibility 3) The entire concept of physical colonization is a hilariously backward concept to a more advanced species.

Possibility 4) There are scary predator civilizations out there, and most intelligent life knows better than to broadcast any outgoing signals and advertise their location.

Possibility 5) There’s only one instance of higher-intelligent life—a “superpredator” civilization (like humans are here on Earth)—that is far more advanced than everyone else and keeps it that way by exterminating any intelligent civilization once they get past a certain level.

Possibility 6) There’s plenty of activity and noise out there, but our technology is too primitive and we’re listening for the wrong things.

Possibility 7) We are receiving contact from other intelligent life, but the government is hiding it.

Possibility 8) Higher civilizations are aware of us and observing us (AKA the “Zoo Hypothesis”).

Possibility 9) Higher civilizations are here, all around us. But we’re too primitive to perceive them.

Possibility 10) We’re completely wrong about our reality.”

PLANETS

By mass regime

Giant planet :- A massive planet. They are most commonly composed primarily of 'gas' (hydrogen and helium) or 'ices' (volatiles such as water, methane, and ammonia), but may also be composed primarily of rock. Regardless of their bulk compositions, giant planets normally have thick atmospheres of hydrogen and helium.

Mesoplanet :- Mesoplanets are planetary bodies with sizes smaller than Mercury but larger than Ceres. The term was coined by Isaac Asimov. Assuming "size" is defined by linear dimension (or by volume), mesoplanets should be approximately 1,000 km to 5,000 km in diameter.

Mini-Neptune :- A mini-Neptune (sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet) is a planet smaller than Uranus and Neptune, up to 10 Earth masses. Those planets have thick hydrogen–helium atmospheres, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of water, ammonia, a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles).

Super-Earth :- A super-Earth is an extrasolar planet with a mass higher than Earth's, but substantially below the mass of the Solar System's smaller gas giants Uranus and Neptune, which are 13 and 17 Earth masses respectively.

By Orbital Regime

Circumbinary planet :- An exoplanet that orbits two stars.

Dwarf Planet :- A planetary-mass object that orbits its star, which does not represent an overwhelming proportion of the mass in its orbital zone and does not control the orbital parameters of those objects (antonym: major planet)

Goldilocks planet:- A Goldilocks planet is a planet that falls within a star's habitable zone. The name comes from the children's fairy tale of Goldilocks and the Three Bears, in which a little girl chooses from sets of three items, ignoring the ones that are too extreme (large or small, hot or cold, etc.), and settling on the one in the middle, which is "just right".

Major planet Planetary :- mass objects which orbit stars that dominate their orbital zone and comprise the vast majority of the mass in that zone (antonym: dwarf planet)

By composition

Carbon planet :- A theoretical type of terrestrial planet that could form if protoplanetary discs are carbon-rich and oxygen-poor.

Coreless planet :- A theoretical type of planet that has undergone planetary differentiation but has no metallic core. It is not the same as a hollow Earth.

Desert planet :- A theoretical type of terrestrial planet with very little water.

Gas dwarf:- A low-mass planet composed primarily of hydrogen and helium.

Gas giant :- A massive planet composed primarily of hydrogen and helium.

Helium planet :- A theoretical type of planet that may form via mass loss from a low-mass white dwarf. Helium planets are predicted to have roughly the same diameter as hydrogen–helium planets of the same mass.

Ice giant:- A giant planet composed mainly of 'ices'—volatile substances heavier than hydrogen and helium, such as water, methane, and ammonia—as opposed to 'gas' (hydrogen and helium).

Ice planet :- A type of planet with an icy surface and consist of a global cryosphere.

Iron planet :- A type of planet that consists primarily of an iron-rich core with little or no mantle.

Lava planet :- A theoretical type of terrestrial planet with a surface mostly or entirely covered by molten lava.

Ocean planet:- A theoretical type of planet which has a substantial fraction of its mass made of water.

Puffy planet :- Gas giants with a large radius and very low density are sometimes called "puffy planets" or "hot Saturns", due to their density similar to or lower than Saturn's.

Terrestrial planet:- A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a planet that is composed primarily of carbonaceous or silicate rocks or metals.

Earth analog:- A planet with environmental conditions similar to those found on Earth.

STARS

Main Sequence Stars:

A star the size of our Sun requires about 50 million years to mature from the beginning of the collapse to adulthood. Our Sun will stay in this mature phase (on the main sequence as shown in the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram) for approximately 10 billion years.

Subgiants

Subgiants are an entirely separate spectroscopic luminosity class (IV) from giants, but share many features with them. Although some subgiants are simply over-luminous main-sequence stars due to chemical variation or age, others are a distinct evolutionary track towards true giants.

Bright giants

Another luminosity class is the bright giants (class II), differentiated from normal giants (class III) simply by being a little larger and more luminous. These have luminosities between the normal giants and the supergiants, around absolute magnitude −3.

Red giants

Within any giant luminosity class, the cooler stars of spectral class K, M, S, and C, (and sometimes some G-type stars) are called red giants. Red giants include stars in a number of distinct evolutionary phases of their lives: a main red-giant branch (RGB); a red horizontal branch or red clump; the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), although AGB stars are often large enough and luminous enough to get classified as supergiants; and sometimes other large cool stars such as immediate post-AGB stars. The RGB stars are by far the most common type of giant star due to their moderate mass, relatively long stable lives, and luminosity. They are the most obvious grouping of stars after the main sequence on most HR diagrams, although white dwarfs are more numerous but far less luminous.

Yellow Giants

Giant stars with intermediate temperatures (spectral class G, F, and at least some A) are called yellow giants. They are far less numerous than red giants, partly because they only form from stars with somewhat higher masses, and partly because they spend less time in that phase of their lives. However, they include a number of important classes of variable stars. High-luminosity yellow stars are generally unstable, leading to the instability strip on the HR diagram where the majority of stars are pulsating variables. The instability strip reaches from the main sequence up to hypergiant luminosities, but at the luminosities of giants there are several classes of variable stars:

Yellow giants may be moderate-mass stars evolving for the first time towards the red-giant branch, or they may be more evolved stars on the horizontal branch. Evolution towards the red-giant branch for the first time is very rapid, whereas stars can spend much longer on the horizontal branch. Horizontal-branch stars, with more heavy elements and lower mass, are more unstable.

Blue (and sometimes white) Giants

The hottest giants, of spectral classes O, B, and sometimes early A, are called blue giants. Sometimes A- and late-B-type stars may be referred to as white giants.

The blue giants are a very heterogeneous grouping, ranging from high-mass, high-luminosity stars just leaving the main sequence to low-mass, horizontal-branch stars. Higher-mass stars leave the main sequence to become blue giants, then bright blue giants, and then blue supergiants, before expanding into red supergiants, although at the very highest masses the giant stage is so brief and narrow that it can hardly be distinguished from a blue supergiant.

Lower-mass, core-helium-burning stars evolve from red giants along the horizontal branch and then back again to the asymptotic giant branch, and depending on mass and metallicity they can become blue giants. It is thought that some post-AGB stars experiencing a late thermal pulse can become peculiar blue giants.

Yellow, Red, Orange, Brown Dwarves:

Dwarf star alone generally refers to any main-sequence star, a star of luminosity class V: main-sequence stars (dwarfs). Example: Achernar (B6Vep)[2]

• Red dwarfs are low-mass main-sequence stars.
• Yellow dwarfs are main-sequence (dwarf) stars with masses comparable to that of the Sun.
• Orange dwarfs are K-type main-sequence stars.
• A blue dwarf is a hypothesized class of very-low-mass stars that increase in temperature as they near the end of their main-sequence lifetime.
• A white dwarf is a star composed of electron-degenerate matter, thought to be the final stage in the evolution of stars not massive enough to collapse into a neutron star or black hole—stars less massive than roughly 9 solar masses.
  • A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has cooled sufficiently such that it no longer emits any visible light.
• A brown dwarf is a substellar object not massive enough to ever fuse hydrogen into helium, but still massive enough to fuse deuterium—less than about 0.08 solar masses and more than about 13 Jupiter masses.

Red Supergiants, Hypergiants:

Red supergiants are stars with a supergiant luminosity class (Yerkes class I) of spectral type K or M. They are the largest stars in the universe in terms of volume, although they are not the most massive or luminous. Betelgeuse and Antares are the brightest and best known red supergiants (RSGs), indeed the only first magnitude red supergiant stars.

White Dwarves: When they reach the end of their long evolutions, smaller stars—those up to eight times as massive as our own sun—typically become white dwarfs.

A hypergiant (luminosity class 0 or Ia+) is among the very rare kinds of stars that typically show tremendous luminosities and very high rates of mass loss by stellar winds. The term hypergiant is defined as luminosity class 0 (zero) in the MKK system. However, this is rarely seen in the literature or in published spectral classifications, except for specific well-defined groups such as the yellow hypergiants, RSG (red supergiants), or blue B(e) supergiants with emission spectra. More commonly, hypergiants are classed as Ia-0 or Ia+, but red supergiants are rarely assigned these spectral classifications. Astronomers are interested in these stars because they relate to understanding stellar evolution, especially with star formation, stability, and their expected demise as supernovae.

To be classified as a hypergiant, a star must be highly luminous and have spectral signatures showing atmospheric instability and high mass loss. Hence it is possible for a non-hypergiant, supergiant star to have the same or higher luminosity as a hypergiant of the same spectral class. Hypergiants are expected to have a characteristic broadening and red-shifting of their spectral lines, producing a distinctive spectral shape known as a P Cygni profile. The use of hydrogen emission lines is not helpful for defining the coolest hypergiants, and these are largely classified by luminosity since mass loss is almost inevitable for the class.

White Dwarves: https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/dwarfs1.html

Black Dwarves: The ultimate stage of stellar evolution for many stars is a black dwarf. Because they emit no heat or light, these objects would be a challenge to detect if they existed today. However, black dwarfs take quadrillions of years to form. At less than 14 billion years old, the universe is still too young to have created any black dwarfs.

A main sequence star that lacks the mass necessary to explode in a supernova will become a white dwarf, a 'dead' star that has burned through all of its hydrogen and helium fuel. But the white dwarf remains hot for some time, much like a stove burner still emits heat even when it has been turned off.

After an extremely long time, all of the leftover heat will have radiated away. No longer emitting heat or light, the white dwarf will become a black dwarf. Because it emits no radiation, it is nearly impossible to see. However, the black dwarf would still retain its mass, allowing scientists to detect the effects produced by its gravitational field. But there's no need to start searching for the elusive black dwarfs yet. At the moment, they're strictly theoretical. Scientists have calculated that a white dwarf will take at least a hundred million billion years to cool down and become a black dwarf, according to astronomer Ethan Siegel.

Even if a white dwarf had formed at the moment of the Big Bang — which is impossible, since a star must pass through several evolutionary stages that take at least a billion years total — it would still be a white dwarf today, having not yet sufficiently cooled.

Neutron Stars: If the collapsing stellar core at the center of a supernova contains between about 1.4 and 3 solar masses, the collapse continues until electrons and protons combine to form neutrons, producing a neutron star.

Neutron stars are incredibly dense - similar to the density of an atomic nucleus. Because it contains so much mass packed into such a small volume, the gravitation at the surface of a neutron star is immense. Like the White Dwarf stars above, if a neutron star forms in a multiple star system it can accrete gas by stripping it off any nearby companions. The Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer has captured telltale X-Ray emissions of gas swirling just a few miles from the surface of a neutron star.

Neutron stars also have powerful magnetic fields which can accelerate atomic particles around its magnetic poles producing powerful beams of radiation. Those beams sweep around like massive searchlight beams as the star rotates. If such a beam is oriented so that it periodically points toward the Earth, we observe it as regular pulses of radiation that occur whenever the magnetic pole sweeps past the line of sight. In this case, the neutron star is known as a pulsar.

Quark Stars: Neutron stars have such intense gravity they crush protons and electrons together into neutrons. The whole star is made of neutrons, inside and out. If you add more mass to the neutron star, you cross this line where it’s too much mass to hold even the neutrons together, and the whole thing collapses into a black hole.

A star like our Sun has layers. The outer convective zone, then the radiative zone, and then the core down in the center, where all the fusion takes place.

Could a neutron star have layers? What’s at the core of the neutron star, compared to the surface?

The idea is that a quark star is an intermediate stage in between neutron stars and black holes. It has too much mass at its core for the neutrons to hold their atomness. But not enough to fully collapse into a black hole.

In these objects, the underlying quarks that form the neutrons are further compressed. “Up” and “down” quarks are squeezed together into “strange” quarks. Since it’s made up of “strange” quarks, physicists call this “strange matter”. Neutron stars are plenty strange, so don’t give it any additional emotional weight just because it’s called strange matter. If they happened to merge into “charm” quarks, then it would be called “charm matter”, and I’d be making Alyssa Milano references.

And like I said, these are still theoretical, but there is some evidence that they might be out there. Astronomers have discovered a class of supernova that give off about 100 times the energy of a regular supernova explosion. Although they could just be mega supernovae, there’s another intriguing possibility.

They might be heavy, unstable neutron stars that exploded a second time, perhaps feeding from a binary companion star. As they hit some limit, they converting from a regular neutron star to one made of strange quarks.

But if quark stars are real, they’re very small. While a regular neutron star is 25 km across, a quark star would only be 16 km across, and this is right at the edge of becoming a black hole.

If quark stars do exist, they probably don’t last long. It’s an intermediate step between a neutron star, and the final black hole configuration. A last gasp of a star as its event horizon forms.

Variable Stars: A variable star is, quite simply, a star that changes brightness. A star is considered variable if its apparent magnitude (brightness) is altered in any way from our perspective on Earth. These changes can occur over years or just fractions of a second, and can range from one-thousandth of a magnitude to 20 magnitudes. More than 100,000 variable stars are known and have been catalogued, and thousands more are suspected variables. Our own sun is a variable star; its energy output varies by approximately 0.1 percent, or one-thousandth of its magnitude, over an 11-year solar cycle.

Luminous Blue Variable: Luminous blue variables (LBVs) are massive evolved stars that show unpredictable and sometimes dramatic variations in both their spectra and brightness. They are also known as S Doradus variables after S Doradus, one of the brightest stars of the Large Magellanic Cloud. They are extraordinarily rare with just 20 objects listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars as SDor,[1] and a number of these are no longer considered to be LBVs.

Wolf Rayet Stars: Wolf–Rayet stars are a normal stage in the evolution of very massive stars, in which strong, broad emission lines of helium and nitrogen ("WN" sequence), carbon ("WC" sequence), and oxygen ("WO" sequence) are visible. Due to their strong emission lines they can be identified in nearby galaxies.

Protostars:

A protostar is a very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud. The protostellar phase is the earliest one in the process of stellar evolution.[1] For a low mass star (i.e. that of the Sun or lower), it lasts about 500,000 years [2] The phase begins when a molecular cloud fragment first collapses under the force of self-gravity and an opaque, pressure supported core forms inside the collapsing fragment. It ends when the infalling gas is depleted, leaving a pre-main-sequence star, which contracts to later become a main-sequence star at the onset of hydrogen fusion.

The formation of stars begins with the collapse and fragmentation of molecular clouds into very dense clumps. These clumps initially contain ~0.01 solar masses of material, but increase in mass as surrounding material is accumulated through accretion. The temperature of the material also increases while the area over which it is spread decreases as gravitational contraction continues, forming a more stellar-like object in the process. During this time, and up until hydrogen burning begins and it joins the main sequence, the object is known as a protostar.

SCHWARZ LÖCHER:

Rotating Black Holes(Kerr):

A rotating black hole is a black hole that possesses angular momentum. In particular, it rotates about one of its axes of symmetry.

Rotating black holes have two temperature states they can exist in: heating (losing energy) and cooling. In 1989, Paul Davies argued that the transition between the two states occurs when the square of the black hole's mass-to-angular-momentum ratio, in Planck units, equals the golden ratio.[3] This claim was later found to be incorrect and in contradiction with Davies' earlier work.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulCdoCfw-bY

Black Holes(Schwarzschild):

A black hole is a region in space where the pulling force of gravity is so strong that light is not able to escape. The strong gravity occurs because matter has been pressed into a tiny space. This compression can take place at the end of a star's life. Some black holes are a result of dying stars.

The Schwarzschild(Normal Black Hole) black hole is the simplest black hole, in which the core does not rotate. This type of black hole only has a singularity and an event horizon.

Because no light can escape, black holes are invisible. However, space telescopes with special instruments can help find black holes. They can observe the behavior of material and stars that are very close to black holes.

Space Phenomenons

Quasar: With the exception of the short-lived, powerful explosions responsible for supernovae and gamma-ray bursts, quasars (or QSOs) are the brightest objects in the Universe.

They are thought to be powered by supermassive black holes (black holes with a mass of more than one billion solar masses) which lie at the center of massive galaxies. However, the black holes themselves do not emit visible or radio light (i.e. they are “black”) – the light we see from quasars comes from a disk of gas and stars called an accretion disk, which surrounds the black hole. Intense heat and light is emitted from this accretion disk, caused by friction produced from the material swirling around, and eventually into, the black hole. Quasars are typically more than 100 times brighter than the galaxies which host them! Quasars also emit jets from their central regions, which can be larger in extent than the host galaxy. When a quasar jet interacts with the gas surrounding the galaxy, radio waves are emitted which can be seen as “radio lobes” by radio telescopes.

Supernovae: A blindingly bright star bursts into view in a corner of the night sky — it wasn't there just a few hours ago, but now it burns like a beacon.

That bright star isn't actually a star, at least not anymore. The brilliant point of light is the explosion of a star that has reached the end of its life, otherwise known as a supernova.

Supernovae can briefly outshine entire galaxies and radiate more energy than our sun will in its entire lifetime. They're also the primary source of heavy elements in the universe. According to NASA, supernovae are "the largest explosion that takes place in space."

One type of supernova is caused by the “last hurrah” of a dying massive star. This happens when a star at least five times the mass of our sun goes out with a fantastic bang!

Massive stars burn huge amounts of nuclear fuel at their cores, or centers. This produces tons of energy, so the center gets very hot. Heat generates pressure, and the pressure created by a star’s nuclear burning also keeps that star from collapsing.

A star is in balance between two opposite forces. The star’s gravity tries to squeeze the star into the smallest, tightest ball possible. But the nuclear fuel burning in the star’s core creates strong outward pressure. This outward push resists the inward squeeze of gravity.

When a massive star runs out of fuel, it cools off. This causes the pressure to drop. Gravity wins out, and the star suddenly collapses. Imagine something one million times the mass of Earth collapsing in 15 seconds! The collapse happens so quickly that it creates enormous shock waves that cause the outer part of the star to explode!

Usually a very dense core is left behind, along with an expanding cloud of hot gas called a nebula. A supernova of a star more than about 10 times the size of our sun may leave behind the densest objects in the universe—black holes.

Nebulae:

Nebula, (Latin: “mist” or “cloud”)plural nebulae or nebulas, any of the various tenuous clouds of gas and dust that occur in interstellar space. The term was formerly applied to any object outside the solar system that had a diffuse appearance rather than a pointlike image, as in the case of a star

Diffuse Nebulae, which means they have no well-defined boundaries. These can be subdivided into two further categories based on their behavior with visible light – “Emission Nebulae” and “Reflection Nebulae”.

Emission Nebulae are those that emit spectral line radiation from ionized gas, and are often called HII regions because they are largely composed of ionized hydrogen. In contrast, Reflection Nebulae do not emit significant amounts of visible light, but are still luminous because they reflect the light from nearby stars.

There are also what is known as Dark Nebulae, opaque clouds that do not emit visible radiation and are not illuminated by stars, but block light from luminous objects behind them. Much like Emission and Reflection Nebulae, Dark Nebulae are sources of infrared emissions, chiefly due to the presence of dust within them.

Some nebulae are formed as the result of supernova explosions, and are hence classified as a Supernova Remnant Nebulae. In this case, short-lived stars experience implosion in their cores and blow off their external layers. This explosion leaves behind a “remnant” in the form of a compact object – i.e. a neutron star – and a cloud of gas and dust that is ionized by the energy of the explosion.

Other nebulae may form as Planetary Nebulae, which involves a low-mass star entering the final stage of its life. In this scenario, stars enter their Red Giant phase, slowly losing their outer layers due to helium flashes in their interior. When the star has lost enough material, its temperature increases and the UV radiation it emits ionizes the surrounding material it has thrown off.

This class also contains the subclass known as Protoplanetary Nebulae (PPN), which applies to astronomical objects that are experiencing a short-lived episode in a star’s evolution. This is the rapid phase that takes place between the Late Asymptotic Giant Branch (LAGB) and the following Planetary Nebula (PN) phase.

Herbig Haro Object:

Herbig-Haro objects are small patches of nebulosity associated with newly-born stars, and are formed when gas ejected by young stars collides with clouds of gas and dust nearby at speeds of several hundred kilometres per second. Herbig-Haro objects are ubiquitous in star-forming regions, and several are often seen around a single star, aligned along its rotational axis.

HH objects are transient phenomena, lasting only a few thousand years at most. They can evolve visibly over quite short timescales as they move rapidly away from their parent star into the gas clouds in interstellar space (the interstellar medium or ISM). Hubble Space Telescope observations reveal complex evolution of HH objects over a few years, as parts of them fade while others brighten as they collide with clumpy material in the interstellar medium.

The objects were first observed in the late 19th century by Sherburne Wesley Burnham, but were not recognised as being a distinct type of emission nebula until the 1940s. The first astronomers to study them in detail were George Herbig and Guillermo Haro, after whom they have been named. Herbig and Haro were working independently on studies of star formation when they first analysed Herbig-Haro objects, and recognised that they were a by-product of the star formation process.

Resources and Tools

1)"Planets - NASA Solar System Exploration." 10 Apr. 2019, https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/in-depth/. Accessed 20 Oct. 2019.

2)"What Is a Supernova? | NASA." 4 Sep. 2013, https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-a-supernova.html. Accessed 20 Oct. 2019.

3)"How Black Holes Work - Science | HowStuffWorks." https://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/astronomy-terms/black-hole2.htm. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

4)"How Black Holes Work - Science | HowStuffWorks." https://science.howstuffworks.com/dictionary/astronomy-terms/black-hole2.htm. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

5)"What Is a Black Hole? | NASA." 4 Jun. 2014, https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-is-a-black-hole-58.html. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

6)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ulCdoCfw-bY

7)"Protostar - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protostar. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

8)"Protostar | COSMOS." http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/P/Protostar. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

9)"Stars | Science Mission Directorate - NASA Science Mission ...." https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/how-do-stars-form-and-evolve. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

10) https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/dwarfs1.html

11) "Dwarf star - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_star. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

12) "Giant star - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_star. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

13)"Stars | Science Mission Directorate - NASA Science Mission ...." https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/how-do-stars-form-and-evolve. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

14)"List of planet types - Wikipedia." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_planet_types. Accessed 18 Oct. 2019.

15)"The Fermi Paradox - Wait But Why." 21 May. 2014, https://waitbutwhy.com/2014/05/fermi-paradox.html. Accessed 20 Oct. 2019.